Laser marking

ABSTRACT

A method and apparatus is disclosed for producing precision marks ( 28 ) for a metrological scale in the form of a stainless steel ribbon ( 10 ). A laser ( 21 ) is used to produce ultra-short pulses, which have a fluence at the ribbon such that ablation takes place. The laser light can be scanned via scanner ( 25 ) and the pitch of the marks ( 28 ) can be controlled. The ablative technique causes little thermal input and improves the accuracy of the scale.

BACKGROUND

This invention relates to the forming of readable (not necessarilyoptically) precision marks, a pattern or other indicia on metrologicaland like equipment by means of irradiation of laser light. In particularbut not exclusively it relates to the formation of a pattern of marks onan object e.g. graduation marks on a scale to be used for metrologicalpurposes.

Some major problems encountered when using a beam of laser light formarking a surface or subsurface of a material are: the dimensionalcontrol of the laser light with respect to that surface/subsurface e.g.to maintain accurate spacing of the marks; the correct selection ofparameters of the light e.g. beam fluence (energy per unit area)duration of exposure of the surface/subsurface and; the adaptation ofthe marking process to suit different applications such as the abilityto mark flat surfaces as well as curved surfaces; and the ability toproduce patterns of marking having different pitch lengths. As well asthese problems heat build-up at the laser exposed area is problematicbecause this changes the dimensions of the resultant scale and leads toinaccuracy. Particularly problematic is the heat build-up in thinmetallic metrological scales, like stainless steel which can buckle andbecome brittle as a result of excessive heat.

The production of measurement scale using a laser light to mark itssurface has been considered previously. In U.S. Pat. No. 4,932,131 anin-situ scale writing or calibration technique is used. A reference isused to lay-down marks or correct any deficiencies in the scale. A laseris used to read and write a scale but there is no disclosure of themethod for doing this, and no mention of overcoming thermal problems.

JP 5169286 shows a method of obtaining a marking perpendicular to thedirection of travel of a measurement scale which is being marked using alaser. In JP 5169286 there is no discussion of thermal problems and nomention of the apparatus which controls the firing of the laser or thebeam's position relative to the scale.

It is known that there are effectively two different mechanisms forpulsed laser ablation of materials and that the key factor fordetermining which mechanism is employed is the pulse length.Essentially, for pulse lengths above approximately 4 picoseconds, thematerial is melted and then boiled off from the surface withconsiderable transfer of thermal energy into the remaining material. Forpulse lengths below approximately 4 picoseconds (i.e. ultrashortpulses), the molten stage is omitted with the material either (dependingon correct understanding of the mechanism) being sublimated straightfrom the solid to the gaseous or ejected from the substrate as minutesolid particles. When ultrashort pulses are used, the amount of thermalenergy transferred to the material is significantly reduced.

SUMMARY

The inventors of the present application have now found that the use ofan ultrashort pulse laser for producing the graduations on a precisionmetrological scale (i.e. having tolerance of a few μm per m) isadvantageous as it reduces any allowance that has to be made for thermaleffects when positioning one graduation relative to others during thegraduation marking process, thus scale accuracy is improved.

The invention according to a first aspect provides a method of producingprecision marks for a metrological scale, employing apparatus including:a scale substrate to be marked at repeated instants by a laser andthereby forming a metrological scale; a laser operable so as to providelight pulses for forming scale markings at the substrate; a displacementdevice for causing relative displacement between the substrate and thelocation at which the light is incident on the substrate; and acontroller for controlling the relative displacement and the laser,

-   -   the method comprising the steps, in any suitable order, of:    -   operating the displacement mechanism so as to cause relative        displacement between the substrate and the light;    -   using the controller to control the relative displacement and to        operate the laser so as to produce light pulses at the        substrate;    -   characterised in that:        the laser produces a plurality of ultra-short output pulses of a        fluence at the substrate such that the metrological scale marks        are formed by laser ablation.

The invention according to a further aspect provides apparatus forproducing precision marks for a metrological scale comprising: a scalesubstrate to be marked at repeated instants by a laser and therebyforming a metrological scale; a laser operable so as to provide lightpulses for forming scale markings at the substrate; a displacementdevice for causing relative displacement between the substrate and thelocation at which the light is incident on the substrate; and acontroller for controlling the relative displacement and for operatingthe laser so as to produce light at the substrate, characterised in thatthe pulses of light produced by the laser are ultra-short pulses of afluence at the substrate such that the metrological scale marks areformed by laser ablation.

The present invention according to a further aspect provides ametrological scale comprising a substrate having scale marks thereatformed by pulses of light from a laser characterised in that the pulsesare ultra short ablative pulses.

The invention is further refined by the selection of the correct fluenceto ensure the most efficient removal of material and optimum surfacefinish of the ablated area. As the fluence is increased above thethreshold value (Fth) for the material, ablation takes place leaving, atlow fluence levels, a relatively smooth surface and, as the fluence isincreased, so does the roughness of the surface finish.

It has now been determined that, for ultrashort pulsed laser beam thefluence for optimum rate of material removal is approximately e² timesthe threshold fluence Fth for that material (e being the mathematicalconstant for the base of natural logarithms and being equal to about2.72). This fluence level also gives a surface finish which presents agood optical contrast to an otherwise polished substrate.

So in a preferred feature of the invention the pulse energy isapproximately e²Fth.

Further aspects of the invention provide marking apparatus forrepeatedly marking a object comprising: a controller; a laser forproviding an output beam of laser light at repeated instants; opticalelements for irradiating the object for causing the markings; adisplacement device for causing relative displacement between the objectand the beam; a displacement sensor for sensing the relativedisplacement and for issuing a displacement signal to the controller,and; a reader for determining the distance between two or more markingsproduced when the object is subjected to the beam and for issuing apitch signal to the controller; the controller in use controlling, inresponse to displacement and pitch signals, the repeated instants atwhich the laser emits its beam.

Thus, in an embodiment of the invention apparatus is provided whichmoves a blank scale past a laser light source which may have beammanipulation (e.g. beam shaping lens and/or a scanner). The movement ofthe scale is monitored by a controller and the appropriate laser firingsignals are given by the controller. The controller monitors the pitchof graduation marks produced by the laser by using scale readersdisposed downstream of the point at which the marking takes place andany pitch correction required is made by the controller.

Preferably the invention provides for the repeated instants at which thelaser emits its beam to be advanced or retarded, or the manipulation tobe changed, all in response to known apparatus error informationaccessible by the controller.

Thus, in the said embodiment the controller has access to a map of knownrepeatable errors which occur during use of the apparatus and thoseknown errors are compensated by advancing or retarding the time at whichthe laser is fired and/or changing the manipulation (e.g. the scannerpath).

Other aspects of the invention provide a number of techniques describedherein for irradiating an object so as to form a marking of a desiredconfiguration. Preferably such markings form graduation marks on ameasurement scale e.g. an elongate linear scale, a rotary encoder scaleor having two dimensionals.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Various features of the invention will now be described with referenceto the drawings, wherein:

FIG. 1 shows manufacturing apparatus according to the invention forproducing measurement scale;

FIG. 2 shows part of the apparatus shown in FIG. 1 in more detail and;

FIGS. 3 a to 3 e show various techniques for marking the measurementscale shown in the previous figures.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

FIG. 1 shows a manufacturing apparatus for making markings on acontinuous flexible ribbon of material approximately 10 mm wide and 0.3mm thick (e.g. from a reel of the material) fed to the apparatus. Inthis example the material is polished stainless steel. The apparatus hasa frame 5 to which various elements of the apparatus are attached. Theribbon 10 traverses firstly a tensioning system 50, then it is fed to amarking station 100, and then onto another tensioning system 60 whichopposes the first tensioning system 50. Both tensioning systems impartconstant tension in the ribbon as it moves through the marking stationirrespective of the speed of the ribbon.

In each tensioning system a counterweight 55,65 provides an upward forceto a moveable roller 51,61 via a pivot 52,62.

A feed motor for driving feed wheel 53,63 increases or decreases inrotational speed in response to the lowering or raising of the weight55,65. A potentiometer 54,64 controls the speed of the motor and isconnected to the pivot 52,62 also, such that the lowering and raising ofthe wheel changes the resistance of the potentiometer. If the speed ofthe feed roller is too slow the roller 51, 61 will fall and thepotentiometer resistance will decrease. In so doing the lowering of theresistance will cause the feed motor to increase the speed of the feedwheel 53, 63 and vice versa.

The ribbon's displacement is governed by the marking station 100 whichis illustrated in more detail in FIG. 2.

In FIG. 2 two pinch rollers 20 and 22 are used to feed the ribbon (whichhas constant tension through the station 100. Pinch roller 20 is drivenat an approximately constant rate but no speed governing need be usedother than a controllable voltage supply. Pinch roller 22 has two rotaryencoder rings 24 affixed thereto or marked thereon. Two readers 26 readthe encoder markings to provide a machine controller (200 FIG. 1) withtwo signals so an average of the two can be used to provide a ribbondisplacement value to the controller. This averaged ribbon displacementsignal at the machine controller 200 is used, via software, to governthe firing of ribbon marking laser 21.

Additionally a system of two or more scale readers, in this instance tworeaders 23 a and 23 b, are used to read the scale that is being producedby the laser 21. The readers 23 are set at a pre-determined distance Lapart and so any errors in the pitch of the markings can be determinedand adjustment via software of the laser firing rate can be made ifappropriate. So even if the temperature at the laser irradiated areaincreases slightly, the temperature at the readers will remain constantand then any slight heating by the laser light can be compensated for byincreasing the scale pitch at the laser irradiated area.

So, the laser can produce markings when desired and to a correctedpitch.

The scale produced by the apparatus described above will be veryaccurate. However, its accuracy may be further improved by removingrepeated errors which arise through machine imperfections like: slightlyinaccurate markings on the rotary encoder rings 24; run-out of theserings; eccentricity of either pinch roller 22 or 20; or persistentinaccuracies in the movements of the scanner 25 used to control theposition of the laser on the scale 10.

If several samples of scale are produced each having several cycles ofthe pinch roller rotation, and the patterns of the scale on the samplesare measured using a highly accurate linear measurement device (eg aninterferometric measurement device) then, using mathematical analysis,the repeated deviations in the scale can be found. It is possible thento provide an error map for the scale producing apparatus which can bestored for use by the machine controller 200 to correct the laser firingand/or scanner movements so as to eliminate those repeated errors.

During such an error mapping procedure it is important to ascertain theposition of the pinch rollers in relation to the sample scale so thatthe error correction (advancement or retardation of the fire signal) canoccur at the correct moment in time. To this end an index mark 29 isplaced on each roller 20/22 and the positions of the rollers at thestart of production are recorded, eg by producing a corresponding markon the scale.

The error map stored in the machine controller 200 can be accessedduring scale production thereafter and could be updated at intervals byrepeating the procedure outlined above so as to maintain the enhancedaccuracy of the apparatus.

The above method describes exemplary techniques and apparatus forpositioning measurement scale relative to a laser. The followingdescription details examples the laser parameters used and techniquesfor marking a scale but these concepts have application to otherproducts.

The laser used for marking is a titanium-sapphire laser which is idealfor firing ultrashort high energy pulses of light. For pulse lengthsbelow approximately 4 picoseconds (i.e. ultrashort pulses), ablation ofmaterial subjected to a pulse takes place provided that the beam energy(F) referred to as “fluence” is above a threshold (Fth). The amount ofthermal energy transferred to the material is significantly less thanthat transferred when using longer pulses.

It has been found when the fluence is increased above the thresholdvalue (Fth) for the material, ablation takes place leaving, at lowfluence levels, a relatively smooth surface and, as the fluence isincreased, so does the roughness of the surface finish. Also it has beenfound that the most efficient removal of material and optimum surfacefinish of the ablated area is obtained when the fluence is approximatelye² times the threshold fluence Fth for that material. Further,reasonably good results are obtained when the range 4 to 12 times thethreshold fluence is used. This fluence range also gives a surfacefinish which presents a good optical contrast to an otherwise polishedsubstrate.

Thus, in the production of the stainless steel scale illustrated inFIGS. 1&2, a titanium sapphire laser is used to fire ultra-short laserpulses of about 100 femtoseconds at a repetition rate of about 5 kHz. Anoutput beam from the laser is focused to a fluence in the region of12-16 kJ/m². The exact parameters depend on the material to be marked.The depth of ablation on the scale surface will dependent also on thecharacteristics of the material and the fluence of the beam, buttypically will be in the order of a few hundred nanometres (nm=m×10⁻⁹).If a continuous substrate like stainless-steel is used as a scale then afew pulses of laser light will be required in order to generate thedepth of marking required to enable a scale reader to differentiatebetween a marked and an unmarked surface. It is possible also that thesurface of the scale may be a film, eg a chromium layer on, say, a glasssubstrate, and the depth of ablation may be that which is sufficient tosubstantially remove the film. If a phased light interference pattern isrequired then the depth of pattern required will depend on thewavelength of light used during use of the grating.

Where short pulse ablation is used the technique imparts little thermalenergy to the scale. This means that no major compensation has to bemade to the dimensions of the markings because there is very littlethermal expansion. Also heat distortion of the scale does not takeplace.

Depending on the power of the laser used and (if required) the movementof the laser beam relative to the scale, various marking techniques canbe used. For a given pulse energy, the desired fluence is selected byvarying the area over which the laser beam is focused. The relationshipbetween that area and the desired line width dictates which of thesetechniques is applicable. The following paragraphs use scale of 40 μmpitch P (i.e. 20 μm line width and a 20 μm space) and 6 mm wide as anexample in FIG. 3.

The output of the beam will require some manipulation. If the laser hadsufficient pulse energy to give the correct fluence over the entire 20μm by 6 mm line, the simplest way to mark the scale would be to move thescale to a position where it is to be marked, stop movement, fire thelaser then move the scale to the next position to be marked. The laserbeam output 27 might be flattened and elongated (see below) to produce athin line (usually an ellipse) and therefore would produce acorresponding line pattern without the need to move the beam across thewidth of the scale (in the y direction in FIG. 3).

If the pulse energy was insufficient to give the correct fluence overthe entire 6 mm line length, Beam 27 might be shaped e.g. to form around spot or ellipse which is shorter than the width of the scalemarkings required. In which case the beam can be moved (scanned) acrossthe scale (in the y direction) whilst the scale is stationary.

Whilst the above techniques give adequate results it is preferred toscan the beam in the directions of x and y (in any combination) using anoptical scanner 25 and to keep the scale moving constantly. If the scaleis kept moving constantly then the scale can be advanced more quicklyand faster production of the patterns produced by the laser can be made.

A number of marking techniques are illustrated in FIGS. 3 a,b,c,d and e.

FIG. 3 a shows an elliptical irradiated area (called a spot in thisapplication). In practice the spot has dimensions approximately 20 μm inwidth t and 6 mm long w. The ratio of t:w is not shown to scale in anyof the FIG. 3. The spot is not moved in the y direction but is firedmany times at the scale 10 as it is advanced with the scale 10 so as tokeep pace with it as it moves continuously in the direction of arrow T.The spot is caused to fly back to its start position once it has treatedthe surface of the scale sufficiently. In this example a 1 Watt laser isused which will need to be fired approximately 30-60 times at thesurface of the scale. Thus scale markings 28 a of a 40 μm pitch can beproduced at a rate of about 50-80 per second, i.e. 30-60 firings atrepetitions of 5 kHz and then fly back to the next start position.

Alternatively, a lower pulse energy could be focused into a spot 6 mmlong but less than 20 μm wide. FIG. 3 b shows an elliptical spot 27 b ofsuch a configuration having a length w of 6 mm and a width t of μ5 m. Inthis arrangement the spot is not scanned in the y direction because ithas sufficient width w to cover the width of the scale required. Thescale 10 is moved and the spot 27 b is again scanned in the X directionso as to keep pace with the movement of the scale. When the requisitetreatment has been performed on the area of the surface of the scaleirradiated by the spot (the first position) then the spot is moved.

The spot can be moved on to various positions. It can be moved to aposition one 40 μm pitch on from the first position, so that scalemarkings having non-unity mark/space ratio are created (see below).Alternatively the spot can be moved to a position 5 μm from the firstposition (the second position, directly adjacent the first position) andthen scanned again to keep pace with the scale movement. When therequisite amount of treatment has been given at the second position aband of treatment twice the width of the spot (i.e. 10 μm wide will beproduced. Repeating the treatment at further adjacent positions canproduce a scale having markings which are further multiples of the spotwidth.

Yet another alternative is moving the spot a fraction of the spot width,or allowing the spot to fall behind the movement of the scale whilst itis treating the scale, giving give markings which can be non integermultiples of the spot width.

The spot can be caused to move in any x and/or y direction and be firedat any time. An advantage of this is that parts of the scale producedcan be missed out (as shown) and altered in some way (e.g. markingswhich are less deep than other markings). Such markings can be used asreference marks or absolute dimensions on a scale.

FIG. 3 c shows another method of marking with the same lower pulseenergy. Spot 27 c is again focussed at a start position and is scannedin the direction c as scale moves in the direction T. The spot in thisinstance is elliptical and is approximately 20 μm wide and 1.5 mm long.Whilst being scanned the spot performs the desired treatment at thesurface of the scale. In this instance the treatment is a series ofoverlapping ablations which form a line pattern. The spot is caused tofly back to position S once it has finished its treatment.

The correct fluence can be achieved by splitting the beam into a numberof smaller spots instead of one larger one. Another method of marking isshown in FIG. 3 d this alternative method utilises a row of spots 27 dwhich are fixed in relation to the x and y directions. The scale ismoved in the direction of arrow T and the positions at which the spotsare aimed are not moved. The firing of the laser occurs once the scalehas been stopped when the distance travelled by the scale in direction Tis equal to nP where P is the pitch of the desired pattern and n is aninteger value used to space the spots 27 d apart. The firing at eachsuccessive interval when the scale has been displaced by distance nPcomprises a number of ablations in order to obtain the correct depth oftreatment.

In the method illustrated in FIG. 3 e a number of slightly ellipticalspots (they may circular) are scanned in the directions e (which hasjust y or x&y components depending on spot configuration) as the scaleadvances in the direction of arrow T. A series of laser firings will berequired and an overlapping pattern of spots will result in a straightline pattern 28 e being produced. The multiple spots used in the methodsillustrated in FIGS. 3 d and 3 c are produced by optically splitting theoutput beam of the laser.

In each of the methods illustrated in FIG. 3 selective advance ofretardation of the firing of the laser can be used, controlled bycontroller 200, to correct any detected errors in the pitch of thepatterns 28 and/or to correct any known machine errors resulting fromthe error mapping described above. The elliptical spots shown are formedby passing the output beam of the laser either a cylindrical lens or asystem of spherical and/or cylindrical lenses.

The methods illustrated in FIG. 3 and the laser parameters described maybe applied to the production of other flat ribbon measurement scale.Also any component may be treated in the manner described andillustrated above eg short lengths of round or flat bar, the actualcomponents of the machines that require relative displacement to bemeasurement, like linear motor shafts, ball screw shafts and other formsof leadscrew, beds of machine tools, relatively rotatable parts likerotary encoders and other devices that have relatively moveable parts.

In such instances the part to be marked could be moved relative to thelaser or vice versa, and that relative movement will be monitored by areference measurement device eg the rotating pinch rollers 20, 22, anaccurate linear encoder, or an interforometric measurement device.

Where non-planar surfaces of parts require marking then it is possiblefor that part to be rotated whilst it is being marked. However, onlyrelatively small diameter parts (less than 25 mm in diameter) would needto be rotated. Larger diameter parts will have sufficient flatness andthe focal depth of the laser beam will be sufficient so that such partscould be treated like the flat ribbon mentioned above.

The invention is particularly suited to the production of thin ribbone.g. 6 mm or less in thickness and of coilable nature, but is notlimited to such material.

It has been found that conventional laser treatment of such ribbon isunsatisfactory when attempting to produce accurate metrological scale ofsuch a thickness. Such known techniques are extremely difficult whenusing metallic ribbon of a thickness less than 6 mm because unacceptablethermal expansion occurs, and are almost impossible when using ribbon of1 mm or less in thickness because thermal distortion occurs. Thus theinvention is advantageous when producing metallic metrological scalehaving a thickness of less than 6 mm e.g. ribbon, sheet 2D grid encodersor rotary encoders, and is particularly advantageous when producingmetallic scales of 6 mm or less.

This invention is most advantageous when producing metallic metrologicalscale having a thickness of less than 1 mm. By experimentation it hasbeen found that exceeding a bulk temperature rise in the material of thescale of 6° C. has a significant adverse effect on accuracy of thescale. So the parameters of pulse duration, speed of relative travelbetween the laser ablation area and the scale, and the scale crosssectional area of the scale are all chosen to keep the temporary bulktemperature rise at the ablation area to less than about 6° C.

This low rise in temperature and ablative technique result in thermalexpansion uncertainties typically below 3 parts per million and usuallybelow 1 part per million. Thus accuracy of the scale has an uncertaintyof better than 3 parts per million.

Ablation according to the invention, also provides excellent opticalcontrast with a reflectivity reduction at the ablated area. A 3 timesreduction or greater is possible.

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method of producing precision marks for ametrological scale, employing apparatus including: a scale substrate tobe marked at repeated instants by a laser and thereby forming ametrological scale; a laser operable so as to provide light pulses forforming scale markings at the substrate; a displacement device forcausing relative displacement between the substrate and the location atwhich the light is incident on the substrate; and a controller forcontrolling the relative displacement and the laser, the methodcomprising the steps, in any suitable order, of: operating thedisplacement mechanism so as to cause relative displacement between thesubstrate and the light; using the controller to control the relativedisplacement and to operate the laser so as to produce light pulses atthe substrate; characterised in that: the laser produces a plurality ofultra-short output pulses of a fluence at the substrate such that themetrological scale marks are formed by laser ablation, wherein theplurality of ultra-short output pulses have a duration such that thescale markings are formed on the scale substrate by a laser ablationmechanism in which the molten stage is omitted.
 2. A method of producingprecision marks, for a metrological scale as claimed in claim 1 whereinthe substrate is subjected to a bulk temperature rise not exceedingabout 6 degrees Celsius at the ablation area as a result of theablation.
 3. A method of producing precision marks for a metrologicalscale as claimed in claim 1 wherein the marks produced contrastoptically with unablated substrate.
 4. A method of producing precisionmarks for a metrological scale as claimed in claim 1 wherein thesubstrate is subjected to a bulk temperature rise causing thermalexpansion uncertainties at the substrate ablation area below 3 parts permillion.
 5. A method of producing precision marks for a metrologicalscale as claimed in claim 3 wherein the optically contrasting marks havean altered reflectivity.
 6. A method of producing precision marks for ametrological scale as claimed in claim 5 wherein the reflectivity of themarks is 3 or more times less than the reflectivity of the substrate. 7.A method of producing precision marks for a metrological scale asclaimed in claim 1 wherein the substrate is flexible.
 8. A method ofproducing precision marks for a metrological scale as claimed in claim 1wherein the substrate is elongate.
 9. A method of producing precisionmarks for a metrological scale as claimed in claim 8 wherein thesubstrate is a continuous metallic ribbon.
 10. A method of producingprecision marks for a metrological scale as claimed in claim 1 whereinthe substrate is of a thickness of less than about 6 mm.
 11. A method ofproducing precision marks for a metrological scale as claimed in claim10 wherein the substrate is of a thickness of less than about 1 mm. 12.A method of producing precision marks for a metrological scale asclaimed in claim 1 wherein the said displacement is continuous.
 13. Amethod of producing precision marks for a metrological scale as claimedin claim 1 wherein the fluence at the centre center of the incidence isabove the threshold for causing ablation by a factor of about 4 to about12.
 14. A method of producing precision marks for a metrological scaleas claimed in claim 13 wherein the fluence at the centre of theincidence is above the threshold for causing ablation by a factor ofabout e², wherein e is a mathematical constant for a base of naturallogarithms.
 15. A method of producing precision marks for a metrologicalscale as claimed in claim 1 wherein the laser light is formed as atleast one ellipse where the light is incident the substrate.
 16. Amethod of producing precision marks for a metrological scale as claimedin claim 1 wherein the ultra-short pulses have a duration of less than 4picoseconds.
 17. A method of producing precision marks for ametrological scale as claimed in claim 1 further employing a laser lightmanipulation device, a displacement sensor for sensing the displacementbetween the substrate and the location at which the light is incidentand a reader for determining the distance between two or more markingsat the scale wherein the method further comprises: issuing a signal fromthe displacement sensor to the controller; issuing a signal from thereader to controller; in response to the signals from the sensor and thereader using the controller to control the manipulation device, thedisplacement, and the repeated instants at which the laser ablates thesubstrate.
 18. A method of producing precision marks for a metrologicalscale as claimed in claim 17 wherein the displacement is linear movementin one direction and the light manipulation device is operable to causethe location at which laser light is incident at the substrate to movetransversely to the said direction.
 19. A method of producing precisionmarks for a metrological scale as claimed in claim 17 wherein thecontroller is used to further control the manipulation and/ordisplacement according to known apparatus error information. 20.Apparatus for producing precision marks for a metrological scalecomprising: a scale substrate to be marked at repeated instants by alaser and thereby forming a metrological scale; a laser operable so asto provide light pulses for forming scale markings at the substrate; adisplacement device for causing relative displacement between thesubstrate and the location at which the light is incident on thesubstrate; and a controller for controlling the relative displacementand for operating the laser so as to produce light at the substrate,characterised in that the pulses of light produced by the laser areultra-short pulses of a fluence at the substrate such that themetrological scale marks are formed by laser ablation, wherein theplurality of ultra-short output pulses have a duration such that thescale markings are formed on the scale substrate by a laser ablationmechanism in which the molten stage is omitted.
 21. Apparatus forproducing precision marks for a metrological scale as claimed in 20wherein the substrate is subjected to a bulk temperature rise notexceeding about 6 degrees Celsius at the ablation area as a result ofthe ablation.
 22. Apparatus for producing precision marks for ametrological scale as claimed in claim 20 wherein the marks producedcontrast optically with unablated substrate.
 23. Apparatus for producingprecision marks for a metrological scale as claimed in claim 20 whereinthe substrate is subjected to a bulk temperature rise causing thermalexpansion uncertainties at the substrate ablation area below 3 parts permillion.
 24. Apparatus for producing precision marks for a metrologicalscale as claimed in claim 22 wherein the optically contrasting markshave an altered reflectivity.
 25. Apparatus for producing precisionmarks for a metrological scale as claimed in claim 24 wherein thereflectivity of the marks is 3 or more times less than the reflectivityof the substrate.
 26. Apparatus for producing precision marks for ametrological scale as claimed in claim 20 wherein the substrate isflexible.
 27. Apparatus for producing precision marks for a metrologicalscale as claimed in claim 20 wherein the substrate is elongate. 28.Apparatus for producing precision marks for a metrological scale asclaimed in claim 27 wherein the substrate is a continuous metallicribbon.
 29. Apparatus for producing precision marks for a metrologicalscale as claimed in claim 20 wherein the substrate is of a thickness ofless than about 6 mm.
 30. Apparatus for producing precision marks for ametrological scale as claimed in claim 29 wherein the substrate is of athickness of less than about 1 mm.
 31. Apparatus for producing precisionmarks for a metrological scale as claimed in claim 20 wherein the saiddisplacement is continuous.
 32. Apparatus for producing precision marksfor a metrological scale as claimed in claim 20 wherein the fluence atthe centre center of ablation is above the threshold for causingablation by a factor of 4 to
 12. 33. Apparatus for producing precisionmarks for a metrological scale as claimed in claim 32 wherein thefluence at the centre of ablation is above the threshold for causingablation by a factor of e², wherein e is a mathematical constant for abase of natural logarithms.
 34. Apparatus for producing precision marksfor a metrological scale as claimed in claim 20 further comprising alaser light manipulation device, a displacement sensor for sensing thedisplacement between the substrate and the location at which the lightis incident and for issuing a signal from the displacement sensor to thecontroller and a reader for determining the distance between two or moremarkings at the scale and for issuing a signal from the reader tocontroller, the controller being further operable in response to thesignals from the sensor and the reader so as to control the manipulationdevice, the displacement, and the repeated instants at which the laserablates the substrate.
 35. Apparatus for producing precision marks for ametrological scale as claimed in claim 34 wherein the displacement islinear movement in one direction and the light manipulation device isoperable to cause the location at which laser light is incident at thesubstrate to move transversely to the said direction.
 36. Apparatus forproducing precision marks for a metrological scale as claimed in claim34 wherein the controller is used to further control the manipulationand/or displacement according to known apparatus error information. 37.Apparatus for producing precision marks for a metrological scale asclaimed in claim 20 wherein the laser light is formed as at least oneellipse at the area where the light is incident at the substrate. 38.Apparatus for producing precision marks for a metrological scale asclaimed in 20 wherein the ultra-short pulses have a duration of lessthan 4 picoseconds.